Sunday, October 28, 2007

Violence in the mass media and its impact on young viewers

Discuss the role of violence within mass media, such as television and video games. What effects can this have on viewers, especially children? Should violence in the media be more controlled?

In 2001, The American Academy of Pediatrics reported that on average, children between ages two and 18 spend six hours and 32 minutes each day using media such as television, movies, video games, and computers, which is more time than is spent on any other activity aside from sleeping (Cheng et al., 2004). A different survey revealed that 75 percent of parents believe that television affects the way their children talk, dress, and behave (McCarraher, 1998, as cited in Browne & Hamilton-Giachritisis, 2005). The US National Television Violence Study investigated the contents of television to find that 61% of programmes contained violence, 55 % of which was in realistic settings, and 71% of violent scenes led to no remorse of criticism for the violence. Furthermore, 54% of programs showed lethal violence content, 39 % of which was committed by attractive people (Browne & Hamilton-Giachritisis, 2005). Exposure to media of a violent nature (including violent news footage) has been linked to a wide range of physical and mental health problems such as desensitization to violence, fear, anxiety, depression, nightmares, and sleep disturbances (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2001; Australian Psychological Society, 2000). The negative outcome that has been of most interest however, is the role violence in the media plays in increasing aggressive and antisocial behaviour.


It is clear that media content can influence all viewers, especially impressionable audiences such as children and adolescents. Steinberg and Kauffman (1999) suggest that adolescence is much like early childhood in the sense that the plasticity of this period leaves adolescents vulnerable to manipulation of thought, social behaviour, and emotions by outside factors. The recent increase in interactive videogames with realistic graphics has raised further concerns that video games may have an even greater adverse effect than television, as they involve the direct and active involvement of the player (Scott, 1995). In a survey by Bowman and Rotter (1983, as cited in Scott, 1995), 85% of the 28 video games examined involved participation in acts of simulated destruction, killing, or violence. Although the responsibility has been delegated back to parents to monitor the programs their children are watching, it is literally impossible to filter out all violent media influences, suggesting that no one can be completely immune to the effects of media violence (Anderson et al., 2003). However, there is a continuing debate on the extent of the short term and long term effects of media violence on children and young people, and how to investigate these effects (Browne & Hamilton-Giachritisis, 2005).


Another perspective argues that violent content on television and in video games does not cause every viewer or player to behave in a violent or aggressive manner in reality, and as a result the effects of individual differences have been thoroughly investigated (Kiewitz & Weaver, 2001). Factors such as genetic predisposition, personality, and social and environmental experiences have been suggested to have an effect on susceptibility to violence in the media. A further viewpoint states that videogames in particular may in fact serve as a tool for relieving aggressive impulses before they are directed elsewhere.


Viewing of violent television has also been associated with aggressive behaviour. According to studies using laboratory simulations, population-based observations, and longitudinal analysis, children who are exposed to violent television programming are more likely to be aggressive and to become involved in the juvenile justice system compared to those with less exposure (Cheng et al., 2004). Anderson et al., (2003) postulate that short-term effects of exposure to media violence might include an increased likelihood of physically and verbally aggressive behaviour, aggressive thoughts, and aggressive emotions. This is suggested to result from the priming of existing aggressive scripts and cognitions and increased physiological arousal, as well as triggering a tendency to imitate observed behaviours. Longitudinal studies have revealed a link between frequent exposure to violent media in childhood and physical assaults, spousal abuse, and other aggressive behaviours later in life (Anderson et al., 2003). This has been attributed to learning processes leading to the acquisition of automatic and lasting aggressive scripts and schemas, and by increasing desensitisation to violence, overriding what should be a negative emotional response to violence. Furthermore, The American Academy of Pediatrics (2001) suggests that prolonged exposure to violent media content results in an increased acceptance of violence, both as a suitable means of solving problems and achieving one’s goals.

The more interactive forms of violent media, such as video games have been shown to have a detrimental effect on pro-social and helping behaviours after playing, and a facilitative role in aggressive thoughts and violent retaliation to provocation (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2001). In addition to violent behaviour, Funk et al. (2002) suggest that violent video or computer games may cause behavioural and emotional problems such as social withdrawal and addiction although most players do not display obvious psychopathology.


Children are particularly influenced by the media, as they learn by observing, imitating, and making behaviours their own. Aggressive attitudes and behaviours are learned by imitating observed models (Bandura, Ross & Ross, 1963, see video in Appendix A for Bobo Doll experiment). Much of this learning takes place without an intention to learn and without an awareness that learning has occurred. Children are especially inept at distinguishing between reality and fantasy, making them a particularly vulnerable group to learning and adopting as normal practice the circumstances, attitudes, and behaviours portrayed by entertainment media (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2001). According to observational-learning theory, the probability that an individual will acquire an observed behaviour is increased when the model is similar to or attractive to the observer, the observer identifies with the model, the context is realistic, and the observed behaviour is followed by positive consequences (Bandura, 1965; Anderson et al., 2003). Adolescents are especially likely to look for role models to identify with because they are attempting to develop their own identities. Media figures are involved in this process because they offer a variety of possible selves with which adolescents can experiment (Konijn, Bijvank, & Bushman, 2007).

The reinforcements a person receives when imitating behaviour are also largely responsible for whether the behaviour persists (Anderson et al., 2003). For example, youngsters might be rewarded or punished by people in their social environment (parents, teachers, peers) for behaviours, or they may observe another person being rewarded or punished for acting in a certain way. Through imitation and reinforcement, children develop habitual behaviours. Although everyone is negatively affected in some way by media violence, the extent to which their behaviour is influenced depends on a variety of individual differences.

Genetic predisposition affects neurocognitive functioning, temperament, conduct disorder, and attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder and all might have the potential to change a child’s behaviour and subsequently, the contribution of media violence to aggressive behaviour becomes hard to distinguish (Browne & Hamilton, 1998). As a result, the effects of media violence will only account for a proportion of an individual’s predisposition for aggressive behaviour. Kiewitz and Weaver (2001) have also found that men are more desensitised to interpersonal conflict and real violence after exposure to media violence than women, and are more likely to respond aggressively. Personality factors such as temperament also seem to play a role, with some research suggesting that high-trait aggressive men are most affected (Browne & Hamilton-Giachritsis, 2005). Further dimensions to consider are family, social, and environmental factors, which have an important role in the development of aggressive and antisocial behaviour (Browne & Hamilton, 1998). For example, growing up in a violent family and being a victim of violence or witnessing violence can have a strong impact on an individual’s predisposition to act aggressively.

Knowing the effect violent media has on youth and children, the problem still remains that children are continually exposed to this violent content, and it is extremely difficult to control. The APS (2000) suggests that some children even develop a taste for more aggressive content, which often includes cartoons. The focus of violent media often underemphasises the impact of aggression in cartoons. In 1956, researchers compared the behaviour of 24 children watching TV. Half watched a violent episode of the cartoon Woody Woodpecker, and the other half watched the non-violent cartoon The Little Red Hen. During play afterwards, the researchers found that the children who watched the violent cartoon were much more likely to hit other children and break toys (Freedman, 2007). Cartoons such as Family Guy, South Park, and Drawn Together all display a medium to high level of violence involving aggressive attacks, shootings, and bleeding (see Appendix B). Although these cartoons and other violent media are designed for adults, they appeal to a younger audience and are easily accessible on free to air and cable TV as well as internet sites such as Youtube.com, making it hard for parents to monitor. Furthermore, with the development of the internet, software for violent games is easily downloadable and often goes un-noticed by parents who monitor their child watching television or DVDs, but are less likely to monitor their child using videogames (Browne & Hamilton-Giachritsis, 2005).


The availability of free to air, cable TV, and movies in the home allows youth to easily access violent media inappropriate to their age, developmental stage, and mental health. Although essentially violence in the media should be controlled, it is yet to occur despite the vast amount of studies that have found a link between viewing violent media and subsequent aggression, anxiety, desensitisation and violent behaviour. Consequently, the responsibility falls on caregivers to monitor the programmes that impressionable children and adolescents are viewing. Although video games are less monitored, they have been found to be an even stronger antecedent to aggressive behaviour due to their interactive nature. The Australian Psychological Society (2000) suggests that adults can help children interpret and critique exposure to violent television material, putting it into a social context which will essentially lessen the negative effects.


References

American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Public Education. (2001). Media
violence. Pediatrics, 108, 1222–1226

Australian Psychological Society. (2000).The effects of violent media on children. Retrieved September 25, 2007 from http://www.psychology.org.au/Assets/Files/effects_of_violent_media_on_children.pdf

Anderson, C., Berkowitz, L., & Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, L., Johnson, J., Linz, D., Malamuth, N., & Wartella, E. (2003). The influence of media violence on youth. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(3), 81-110.

Bandura, A. (1965). Influence of models’ reinforcement contingencies on the
acquisition of imitative responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
1
, 589–595.

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. (1963). Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. Abnormal Social Psychology, 66, 3-11.

Browne, K., & Hamilton, C. (1998). Physical violence between young adults
and their parents: associations with a history of child maltreatment. Journal of Family Violence, 13, 59–79.

Browne, K., & Hamilton-Giachristsis, C. (2005). The influence of violent media on children and adolescents: A public-health approach. The Lancet, 365, 702-710.

Cheng, T., Brenner, R., Wright, J., Sachs, H.C., Moyer, P., & Rao, M. (2004). Children’s violent television viewing: Are parents monitoring? Pediatrics, 114(1), 94-99.

Funk, J., Hagan, J., Schimming, J., Bullock, W., Buchman, D., & Myers, M. (2002). Aggression and psychopathology in adolescents with a preference for violent electronic games. Aggressive Behaviour, 28, 134-144.

Henry, D. B., Tolan, P. H. & Gorman-Smith, D. (2001). Longitudinal family and peer group effects on violence and nonviolent delinquency. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 172-186.

Kiewitz C., & Weaver, J. (2001). Trait aggressiveness, media violence, and perceptions of interpersonal conflict. Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 821–35.

Konijn, E., Bijvank, & Bushman, B. (2007). I wish I were a warrior: The role of wishful identification in the effects of violent video games on aggression in adolescent boys. Developmental Psychology, 43(4), 1038-1044.

Media Awareness Network. (2007). Research on the effects of media violence. Retrieved 27 October, 2007, from http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/violence/effects_media_violence.cfm

National Television Violence Study. (1998). National Television Violence
Study (Vol. 3
). Santa Barbara: University of California, Santa Barbara,
Center for Communication and Social Policy.

Scott, D., (1995). The effect of video games on feelings of aggression. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 129(2), 121-132.

Steinberg, L., & Cauffman, E. (1999). A developmental perspective on serious juvenile crime: When should juveniles be treated as adults? Federal Probation, 63 (2), 52-58.


Appendix A
Bandura's (1965) Bobo Doll experiment depicting children copying aggressive behaviour seen performed by a model.


Appendix B

A compilation of violent cartoons





Appendix C
Self Analysis

Word Count: 1, 630


1.Theory
I do feel that I understand all of the key theories surrounding this topic; however it is hard to judge whether I have included all of the relevant information since there was so much literature on the topic, and such a short word limit. I have attempted to summarizes the different theoretical approaches to violence in the media, and provide examples and studies that help explain how they are applied.


2. Research

This particular topic has a wide variety of information available, and hence it was difficult to summarize and draw out the key points from the multitude of resources. I have used 16 references which are a combination of journal articles, web articles, and surveys/studies. Combined they were more than adequate to provide statistics, research and theory. I could have included a lot more research since it was readily available, but there wouldn’t have been much point without more words to work with, as I wouldn’t have been able to include all of the findings.

3. Written Expression
I am confident in my ability to write in a sound APA style. Although the blogging format won’t let you indent paragraphs or reference lists, I have attempted to italicise in all of the appropriate places, and reference in the correct style. The paragraphs are well structured and include an extended introduction (over a couple of paragraphs) which helped to separate the concepts to be explored, a body, and a conclusion which summarized the key points made. The relevant videos- which enhance the interactivity of the blog- have been included as appendices at the end so as not to disrupt the APA formatting. A Flesch- Kinkaid analysis revealed a reading level of 17.2, but once again, this seems to vary depending on whether a word is deleted, and even altered if you copy and paste the same text into another document and re-run the analysis.

4. Online engagement
My online engagement has really improved in the second part of the semester. I have made 11 of my own posts, many of which included videos and images, and were aimed at assisting other people with their topics and providing them with resources and opinions. Many of these have also generated interesting discussions. I enjoyed posting not only on my own essay topic, but exploring some of the other social psychology issues. I also made 13 comments on other peoples’ blogs throughout the term, which is almost double the amount that I made for blog 1. I think my confidence increased after the first assignment, and as I learnt more from the course content I felt better able to make input. Links to some of my contributions can be found below.

Beck's blog: How social psych got me into an argument
Beck's blog: Why are some people attractive?
Christina's blog: Post Secret
Clare's blog: Love me, Love me say that you love me
Convenor's blog: Flashmobbing
Dave's blog: information overload
Graham's blog: The facebook stalker
Kara's blog: sex and popularity
Michelle's blog: Dove campaign for real beauty
Monique's blog: divorce in Australia
Nick's Blog- Today's women

Saturday, October 27, 2007

Violent video games are a minimal factor in violent behaviour

This video highlights the concept that although violent video games do lead to aggression, it is only in a small percentage that the aggression becomes an issue, and this is due to a multitude of other factors, such as personality and upbringing. The psychologist in the video highlights that the people who participate in school shootings are most likely angry and have been provoked in life. Furthermore, it suggests that violent video games are in fact an outlet for aggression and hence my have a positive function.

How violent video games affect the brain (NBC news clip)

Thursday, October 25, 2007

Reflections on divorce, and our last tutorial

In our last social psychology tute, one of our 'changes' to Australia that we discussed we would like to make is to lower the divorce rate, as it was shocking to hear a statistic that 50% of marriages end in divorce. Of course this has impacted on the rate of people getting married in the first place- would like to marry, would NOT like to be divorced! Our plan was to reduce the divorce rate by making it HARDER to get divorced. This might involve having a minimum of 3 counselling sessions before the legal avenue could be taken. Either that, or make it harder to get married in the first place! It seems so many people have romanticised views of marriage and dont forsee/are not willing to put in the hard work that comes with it. My grandparents have been married for 50 years next year, and when we ask how they made their marriage work they told us grandkids that there had been plenty of times when one or both of them had wanted to leave because it had been too hard. However, they maintained that they didnt leave- they stayed and worked on it, and now their marriage is stronger than ever. As we all know from our psychology/counselling courses: conflict is inevitable. So do we just run away when things get hard? As we also know from Social Psychology, passionate (romantic) love only lasts for 1,2,3 years at the most, so what do married couples anticipate will happen when this wears off? This is where the good old 'birds of a feather flock together' seems sensible. Marry your best friend: someone you respect, who has the same values, goals, dreams, interests, and attitudes of commitment towards marraige and then hopefully you'll have enough to sustain you :)

One more point on Moniques stigma comment: i completely agree. In Australia, divorce has become so normalized that people dont give it much thought. When i was living in Poland, i discovered that divorce was associated with a negative label... it wasnt socially acceptable to have a failed marriage. Consequently the divorce rate in Poland is extremely low! Is this because their marriages are better? doubtful. They have less conflict? Unlikely... so we're left to conclude that perhaps they work at it harder, and that if our society was less accepting of divorce then our divorce rate would be lower as well!

Friday, October 12, 2007

Socialising is an important part of Social Psychology :P

University of Canberra Psychological Society
Christmas Party


Satisfy your NEED for affiliation :P




All Psychology students and staff members are invited to attend our Christmas cocktail party to celebrate the end of another year and get together and have some fun!


When: Friday November 16th (after exams!)
Time: 7.30pm onwards
Where: Binara One Bar, Binara Street, Crown Plaza Civic
Cost: FREE for members and staff
$10 for non-members (to contribute to bar tab and catering)
RSVP: L.Hyde@student.canberra.edu.au
RSVP deadline: November 1st 2007

Non member fee of $10 can be paid to Rachael at UCU clubs and societies office above the refectory.

We hope to see you there for drinks, dancing, and yummy nibbles!

*Especially those who are graduating this year from undergraduate, 4th year and masters *


Friday, October 5, 2007

In response to: Piercings and beauty spots

Hey Beck,
this is indeed a good point! I think the beauty spot is a bit of an 80s trend! You dont really see people adding them anymore... but my mother was a beauty therapist in the late 80s/early 90s and she had one tatooed onto her face to look like Cindy Crawford! Bizzare! The things we do for beauty! Also, the picture you posted of Fergie, and the one of Michael Jackson Clare posted sent me off onto another tangent- plastic surgery! Its terrible! People think it makes them look more attractive but the examples i can think of look so much prettier without it! I am led to conclude that plastic surgery is an illness or disorder. Perhaps pending for the DSM-V? haha. Have a look at the pictures below and see if you think the before shots are more attractive too!

-Lauren (aka Mrs. Freud)



Hunter Tylo before and after shots (Taylor from The Bold and the Beautiful)






Michael Jackson before, during, and after assorted plastic surgery. What a handsome young man he would have been if he'd just left his appearance as it was!!

Tuesday, September 25, 2007

Examples of media violence

The following clip is a compilation of violent scenes in cartoons! Cartoons are very attractive to children, and less likely to be detected for their unsuitable content by parents than are blatantly violent movies. Have a look at the clip and see how bad some of the messages they are sending are! All comments welcome!



Position paper on media violence effects on children

hello all, this is a position paper from the APS i found that gives me a good foundation for my blog 2 topic!

The Effects of Violent Media on Children

This fact sheet is extracted from an Australian Psychological Society Position Paper entitled Media Representations and Responsibilities, which can be found on the website: www.psychology.org.au.

Introduction
• Research consistently reports very high levels of exposure to violence through electronic media;
• persistent viewing of violence on television is linked to an increased likelihood of behaving aggressively in the long-term; and
• television is only one of a number of factors which contribute to the tendency to violence and aggression, each of which makes a small but significant contribution.


What does the research tell us about its effects upon children?

• Exposure to violent television can and does influence children’s feelings, attitudes and behaviour;
• it is generally agreed that prolonged exposure to television violence is one of a number of factors which lead to children being more likely to display aggressive behaviour in both the short-term and the long-term;
• some children enjoy, and develop an appetite for, viewing violent material;
• viewing violence on television leads to immediate distress and fear in many children;
• many children retain longer-term recurrent disturbing memories from viewed violence;
• exposure to media violence can contribute to beliefs that aggression is an acceptable and effective behaviour, can induce fear and anxiety and the belief that the world is “a mean and scary place”;
• continual exposure to media violence increases the likelihood that children will be desensitised to real violence;
• age and gender are important influences on the nature of the effects, with younger children likely to be more susceptible to learning from TV; and
• the social context of viewing is important in determining the effects of exposure to violent television; e.g. if an adult helps the child interpret and critique the viewed material, the negative effects are lessened.

What does the community want?
• There is widespread community concern, particularly amongst parents and teachers, about the level of violence in television programs and videogames;
• consumers, including children, tend to dislike the amount of violence on TV; and
• most children’s preferences are for exciting and humorous programs, and violence is generally unwelcome except when it is associated with high levels of action.

What can parents do?
• Parents can know what their children are watching;
• set and enforce clear rules about the amount and type of programs watched;
• watch with their children whenever possible, and help their children interpret and critique the viewed material by means of family discussions; and
• encourage their children to engage in more active and creative pursuits, including activities with parents and other family members.

What can educators do?
• Media education curricula should be developed and widely disseminated in schools. A key element should be the provision of skills in monitoring and analysing media content;
• professional development seminars should be made widely available for teachers to enable them to increase their own media literacy skills;
• teachers can use their influence by drawing the attention of children and parents to exciting, non-violent media, and expressing their own enthusiasm over them; and
• media education should be made widely available for parents as well as for children.

What can journalists and journalism educators do?
• Recognise the complexity of the issues and avoid simplistic global assertions;
• include best-practice examples in journalism education; and
• make professional development courses available for currently practising journalists.
What can psychologists do?
• Be alert to recognising the influence of media in the ideation and emotionality of clients, particularly children and adolescents; and
• stay abreast of current research and conduct research in neglected areas.

In conclusion
It is recommended that media producers respond to the community’s concern about TV violence, hear the preferences expressed by children, and use their resources to produce exciting media material that does not rely on violence. In turn, media policy makers and regulators need to ensure that classification systems are based on the research evidence and are effectively applied, monitored and enforced.
Consumers can undertake a range of activities to influence the type and quality of media viewed by children:
• complain to appropriate bodies about material or policies of which they disapprove;
• praise programs they admire to organisations such as those listed below;
• boycott certain programs or media outlets; and
• join and support lobby groups.

Friday, September 14, 2007

Queen Bees, and Wannabes!


Hi Kara,

I will be diligently watching the progress you make with this topic! I think its quite a difficult one really, and one that has not been researched enough. At my (all girls catholic) highschool we definitely had cliques despite a lack of boys to impress! It was interesting to see how popularity changed as we progressed through the grades though! In younger years, the popular girls were those with more 'sexual' experience, who wore makeup and the right clothes. We wore a uniform so they had to make do with wearing knee high socks and jewellery. However, as we progressed into senior school, the bitchy, boycrazy girls stopped being perceived as popular and instead received more negative labels. The popular girls were the ones who were smart, nice to everyone, and had a good sense of humour. Granted, they were always still pretty! I read a great book on this a few years ago which i think you'll find useful- its what mean girls was based on. Its called 'Queen Bees and Wannabes' by Rosalind Wiseman. Have a look and let me know what you think. Ive got a copy you can borrow if you would like!

Lauren

Oprah Website- Queen Bees and Wannabes

Tuesday, September 11, 2007

Does violence in the media lead to real-life aggression?

Media violence has been a topic of debate without definitive answers for many years. The primary question of focus seems to be whether or not media violence actually causes real-life violence

Of course, many factors could contribute to this, such as personality traits, the perception of 'reality' of media violence and so on. Increasingly the debate is focusing on the "culture of violence," and on the normalization of aggression and lack of empathy in our society. Indeed it seems that the more violence we view, the more desensitised we become. I myself being a romantic comedy and drama movie lover, find it quite hard to witness gruesome shooting scenes in action movies and thrillers, and i avoid horror films all together!

However the fact remains that frequent exposure to any variety of originally offensive material such as drug use, sex scenes, course language etc seems to reduce the shock factor of the content. Any comments on this phenomenon?

Food for thought:



On Attractiveness....

This is a reply for Beck :)

My first thought when i looked at the celebrity pictures you posted was 'Oh dear, Patrick Dempsy is so McDreamy!' :P In fact, i managed to 'procrastinate' our procrastination essay today by watching two taped episodes of Grey's Anatomy! I think your topic is fascinating too Beck, however i would be interested to see how people rate the attractiveness of 'normal' people without all the hair, makeup and airbrushing that celebrities are priviledged with. I have read in a few places that racial mixing makes an individual more attractive (which is good news for me being half Australian and half Indian!) So I did a search and found a great article and some pictures for you.

http://majorityrights.com/index.php/weblog/comments/893/

Tuesday, September 4, 2007

Children See, Children Do

In light of my new social psychology topic 'violence in the media and its impact upon children', i thought i'd start by posting a few videos which highlight the effect of social learning theory, whereby children acquire behaviours by watching them being performed. This first video is a powerful commercial on television warning parents about the impact their behaviour has on their children. It shows children copying behaviours ranging from smoking, to vomiting, to racism, to physical violence. Quite a powerful ad!



This second video is of Bandura's famous (1965) bo bo doll experiment where children are seen to be copying violent behaviours modelled by adults towards a bo bo clown doll. The other important component of this experiment was that children witnessed one of two outcomes of such aggressive behaviour- either they saw the model being rewarded for the behaviour, or punished for the behaviour. Children who saw the model being rewarded for the behaviour were far more likely to replicate the aggressive behaviour towards the bobo doll.

Thursday, August 30, 2007

Variables of prejudice, aggression, and group influence: Integration that results in genocide

Abstract

This essay attempts to highlight some of the key social psychological antecedents to genocide by exploring and applying social theories and concepts to the WWII Holocaust, and the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. An interaction of multiple variables was hypothesized to contribute to genocide. The three key areas of exploration were divided into concepts surrouding prejudice, aggression, and group influence. Prejudicial variables such as negative steriotypes were suggested to lead to group polarization, dehumanization, and in-group bias. Aggression and hate, championed by charismatic and powerful leaders was also proposed to lead to violent acts justified by moral exclusion and 'just world thinking'. Finally, the effect of group influence on individual behaviour was explored, and concepts such as deindividuation, obedience, and conformity were also found to act as antecedents to genocide.

Introduction

Following the genocide committed by the Nazis in World War II the expression “never again” was widely and passionately brandished, however this was certainly not to be the last. During the last decade of the 20th century, the world has witnessed massacres and genocides in record numbers. These were not random killings or sudden bursts of irrationality on the part of crowds. Rather, they were carefully planned and orchestrated killings inspired by racial hatred, aggression and dehumanization that have come close to matching the grand- scale deaths produced by the Nazis during the Holocaust. In 1994, over one million Tutsi men, women, and children were massacred by the Hutu militia. Signs of impending crisis were plainly visible in Rwanda in late 1993 (see Ghosts of Rwanda video/website). Social conflicts escalated almost daily, reflecting an angry polarization between the state and the public (Smith, 1998). Yet, by the time international forces intervened, it was much too late, and only 130,000 Tutsis had survived the brutal ethnic cleansing.

Definitions of genocide vary, however according to the United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, the key theme is ‘the intent to destroy in whole or in part, a racial, ethnic, religious, or national group as such, by killing members of the group or imposing conditions detrimental to survival’. Causing serious bodily or mental harm, imposing measures intended to prevent births within a group, and forcibly transferring children of one group to another group are all aspects of genocide incorporated into this definition (Sternberg, 2003). There are a vast number of psychosocial variables that might help to explain the occurrence of genocide; however concepts surrounding prejudice, aggression, and group influence will be the centre of exploration.

The Role of Prejudice

Prejudicial variables such as stereotypes play a strong role in the storm of psychosocial variables that preempt genocide. Stereotypes are beliefs that associate groups with certain traits (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). In order to justify the murders that took place during the Holocaust, the Nazis used not only racist arguments but also arguments derived from older negative stereotypes, such as that Jews were communist subversives, war profiteers and hoarders, and a danger to internal security because of their inherent disloyalty and opposition to Germany (Holocaust Encyclopedia, 2007). More dehumanising negative stereotypes depicted Jews as power crazed, greedy, ugly, rat like, filthy, and as insects that needed to be exterminated (Sternberg, 2003). In contrast, positive stereotypes were created for the Aryans who were portrayed as handsome, beautiful, desirable, pure, and even godlike (Sternberg, 2003). Such stereotypes serve to introduce an attitude of fear and hatred into a society in which there are minority groups, and in the case of Nazi Germany, the next progression towards genocide was the development of an ‘us and them’ mentality which was concentrated on the removal of Jews, Gypsies, and other minority groups in order to ‘protect’ the Aryans.

In 1938 as a means of minimising individual identity and dehumanisation, Jewish men and women bearing Christian names of ‘non Jewish’ origin were forced to add ‘Israel’ to their first name, carry identity cards indicating their Jewish heritage, and eventually were forced by law to wear a Star of David patch to distinguish them from the white Germans (Holocaust Encyclopedia, 2007). The events of removing the rights of Jewish citizens, seizing their possessions, and segregating them on the basis of their ethnic and religious identity are consistent with stages five and six in ‘The eight stages of genocide’- polarization and identification (Stanton, 1998).

Similarly in Rwanda, genocide was carefully planned with Hutus painting negative stereotypes of the Tutsis in order to create polarization of the two groups and manipulate public opinion towards the Tutsi minority who were seen as having stolen power and resources from native Hutus. The Tutsi group was therefore portrayed as evil and culturally alien to Rwanda. What started as stereotypes and hatred towards a minority group resulted in a mass genocide of almost 800,000 Rwandan Tutsis (Sternberg, 2003).

Short film summarising the Rwandan Genocide:



The Role of Aggression and Hate

Aggression and hate are also necessary antecedents to genocide. According to Sternberg (2003), one of the most powerful forces underlying mass killings is hate that is cultivated to accomplish ends that are mindfully, planfully, and systematically conceived. During the Holocaust, the Nazis used a variety of techniques to incite loathing towards targeted groups. Adolf Hitler seemed to recognise the power of hatred in pulling together a diverse group of followers, and was able to activate hatred in his cohort so that seemingly unrelated enemies appeared to belong in a single category (Sternberg, 2003). He used mass demonstrations and parades utilising propaganda depicting all Jews as ‘evil’ to incite passion in followers towards all that he represented (Alford, 1999).



As mentioned, the establishment of target group stereotypes and the subsequent incitement of hatred towards that group can create an ‘us and them’ mentality and an in-group bias. As a result, violent acts towards this group often follow, and are explained and interpreted by the perpetrators as a response to the actions, intentions or character of their victims. In other words, the perpetrators are engaging in ‘just world’ thinking, and justifying their own violent acts as a response to undesirable characteristics of the victims. According to Macrae et al. (1997), this leads to an increasing devaluation of their victims and eventually a type of ‘moral exclusion’ whereby values and moral standards that would usually apply to everyone else no longer are applied to behavioural acts directed towards their victims. This is how genocide begins: the seed of hate is planted, and the facilitation of aggressive tendencies via stereotypical propaganda leads to devaluation of the victim, and the escalation of violent acts. However, it may seem implausible that an individual who previously has not expressed prejudice or hatred towards a particular group can behave in a manner so contradictory to their character or perceived capabilities. Such factors might be better understood by examining the variables surrounding group influence.


The Role of Group Influence

Ordinary people can be driven by unfortunate circumstances and leaders who are charismatic, powerful and influential into behaviors in which, under more normal circumstances, they might never have engaged. Within genocide, some people may be propelled by hate and others by factors that are quite different, such as the desire to advance their careers or to save their own lives. For example, fear of the Nazi party and Hitler himself may well have been one of the strongest incentives to conform to the Nazi regime. Milgram’s (1963) experiments with obedience in a laboratory setting showed that ordinary people would in fact administer what they believed to be painful and life threatening shocks to an unseen individual if given the chance. A subsequent study by Milgram (1964) revealed that group influence can shape behaviour in ways that might have been perceived to be highly resistant to group pressure, such as administering pain to another individual at the command of the group. Milgram proposes that the degree to which the behaviour is executed would be much lesser in the absence of social pressure.

Deindividuation refers to a loss of self-awareness and of individual accountability as a result of a group environment (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). A simple way of illustrating this concept was quoted by Stanislaus Lezczynski (King of Poland in the 1700’s) - ‘No snowflake in an avalanche ever feels responsible’. In this same way, perpetrators of genocide often lose their ability to act in a moral and conscious manner when faced with the potential for anonymous aggression. Instead, they may act on impulse, increasing antisocial behaviour (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). The result is that self-interest is overridden by the interests of the group, and in circumstances such as Nazi Germany and Hutu Rwanda the result of this process was devastating and destructive on a large scale. A conclusion reached by Postmes and Spears (1998) suggested that loss of accountability acts as a predictor for aggression. Thus one of the most logical ways to reduce violent acts that are a result of deindividuation would be to increase individual accountability.

Conclusion

By exploring the tragic genocides that occurred in Rwanda in 1994 and during the Holocaust in World War II, it has emerged that genocide develops and eventuates from a collation of psycho social variables. Prejudicial influences, such as negative stereotypes have been found to be a key antecedent to genocide. Such negative stereotypes can lead to the dehumanization of minority groups and result in increasing polarization of these two opposing groups facilitated by an ‘us and them’ mentality, or in-group bias. Powerful and influential leadership groups such as the Nazis and the Hutus use propaganda to implant aggression and hate towards a target group. As a result of the dehumanization process, perpetrators justify violent acts towards target groups by engaging in ‘just world’ thinking, and moral exclusion. Finally, the seemingly uncharacteristic violent acts of otherwise normal individuals can be somewhat accounted for by examining group environments and the resulting reduction of individual accountability and self awareness through the process of deindividuation, obedience, and conformity.




References

Alford, C. F. (1999). Hatred is counterfeit community and the simulacrum of love. Journal of Psychoanalysis of Culture & Society, 2, 39–45.

Baumeister, R., & Bushman, B. (2008). Social Psychology and Human Nature. Thomson-Wadsworth: Belmont, CA.

Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., Thorn, T., & Castelli, L. (1997). On the activation of social stereotypes: The moderating role of processing objectives. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 471–489.

Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioural study of obedience. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(4), 371-378.

Milgram, S. (1964). Group pressure and action against a person. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 69(2), 137-143.

Postmes, T., & Spears, R. (1998). Deindividuation and antinormatic behavior: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 123, 238-259.

Smith, D.N. (1998). The psychocultural roots of genocide: Legitimacy and crisis in Rwanda. American Psychologist, 53(7), 743-753.

Stanton, G. (1998). The eight stages of genocide. Genocide Watch, retrieved online from: http://www.genocidewatch.org/eightstages.htm on 15 August, 2007.

Sternberg, R. (2003). A duplex theory of hate: Development and application to terrorism, massacres, and genocide. Review of General Psychology, 7(3), 299-328.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. "Anti-Jewish legislation in prewar Germany." Holocaust Encyclopedia. Retrieved from: http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005681 on 30 August, 2007.

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. "The Holocaust." Holocaust Encyclopedia. Retrieved from: http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/index.php?ModuleId=10005143 on 30 August, 2007.

Video Resources:

Frontline: Ghosts of Rwanda: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/ghosts/

Short Rwandan Genocide Film: http://www.youtube.com/v/XsdPrQNa0Ig

Hyperlink definitions: http://www.reference.com


Concept Map




Appendices

Word count: 1,504

Self Evaluation

Online Engagement

I set up my blog within the first two weeks of semester and although i was a bit unsure of this whole blogging process i attempted to research my topic early and provide some comment on my own personal experience with countries that have experienced genocide. I have posted photos and videos, and made an effort to develop a personal profile with a photo of myself. I concede that i havent made as many posts as i could have, and could have benefited greatly from posting draft essays and concept maps earlier, however now that i understand more about the blogging world i feel i will be more confident to engage more for blog 2. In terms of engaging with others on their blogs, i certainly attempted to read the most recent posts every couple of days, but didn't comment as much as i could have, instead reserving my comments for blogs on which i had a strong opinion. Overall i would give myself a credit for online engagement.

Following are links to posts that i have made on my own blog:

http://mrsfreud.blogspot.com/2007/07/holocaust.html

http://mrsfreud.blogspot.com/2007/08/hi-everyone-as-i-was-searching-for.html

http://mrsfreud.blogspot.com/2007/08/8-stages-of-genocide.html

http://mrsfreud.blogspot.com/2007/08/test-concept-map.html

http://mrsfreud.blogspot.com/2007/08/updated-concept-map.html

Following are links to others' blogs on which i have commented:

http://kelg85socialpsychblog.blogspot.com/2007/08/harry-potter-and-eight-stages-of.html

http://clarebear-socialpsych.blogspot.com/2007/08/maybe-we-just-cant-help-it.html

http://karensocialpsych.blogspot.com/2007/08/words-from-carl-wilkens.html

http://powellpsychology.blogspot.com/2007/08/don-let-ice-destroy-you.html

Written Expression

A readability analysis revealed a Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level of 12, and a Flesch Reading Ease score of 28 initally. By shortening sentences, and making paragraphs more concise and by adding an abstract, my Flesch reading score improved to 34. This analysis confuses me though, because you can obtain a different statistic every time-i have obtained at least 5 different scores for the same text. I have attempted to use APA format throughout the entire essay, and am confident of my ability to reference using an APA style. The bolded headings were utilized to make the essay flow better, and to organize the concepts into logical paragraphs. A concept map was created before the essay was started, highlighting three main themes, each of which has social psychology theories and examples of these theories from both the Rwandan and Holocaust genocides. I have deliberately kept the concept map uncluttered and simple to aid understanding rather than hinder it. The essay was based on the layout of the concept map, and all three key themes: Aggression, prejudice and group influence were all found to be interrelated. I have also included a short video and a photo within the body of the text. This was not intended as a distraction, but as a means of making the blog more colourful, interesting and interactive. In future blogs, I would even attempt to use more pictures to break up the text.

Theory and Research

Textbooks, journal articles, online encyclopedias, and websites were used to research this topic. I have included examples from both the Rwandan genocide and the Holocaust both of which were enough to help me explore the social concepts outlined in the concept map. I have included as many theories and concepts as the word count would allow, and although I could have included more references to reflect research, it was unnecessary for this blog. Reference.com was used to create hyperlinks to words that may have required a more complete definition.

updated concept map


test concept map

Wednesday, August 29, 2007

Short Rwanda video

Hi everyone,
As i was searching for multimedia on the rwandan genocide i came across this short video, i think it was made by a student, but it gives a pretty good overview of what happened in Rwanda with pictures and text narrative. Worth a look if you're doing the genocide question!

Wednesday, August 15, 2007

The 8 stages of genocide

After the documentary 'Ghosts of Rwanda' yesterday (see also http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwandan_genocide), i was left aghast to wonder how simple racism and hatred has the potential to escalate into a genocide of 800,000 people while the world stands by. I was furious with America (and the UN) for their refusal to acknowledge the situation in Rwanda, and to blatantly state that they wouldnt help if it wasnt in their best interest (you would think it was more about basic human rights, justice and values!). The USA barely paused before they invaded Iraq to stop the terrible injustice that was taking place there... but then again, maybe such a move was politically and economically in their best interest....? Anyway these are only my opinions, and as i researched the causes of Genocide i found a table and article on the development and preventative measures that i thought other people would find useful also.

http://www.genocidewatch.org/eightstages.htm



Definition: Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction of an ethnic or national group. While precise definition varies among genocide scholars, the most prominent definition in international law is found in the 1948 United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG). Article 2 of the CPPCG defines genocide as "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly transferring children of the group to another group." (www.wikipedia.com)

Tuesday, July 31, 2007

Holocaust


I too have been fascinated and haunted by the events of WW2, and the brutality of the Holocaust. In 2004 i undertook a teaching english placement in Warsaw, Poland, and the devestation of the people can still be felt today, especially in the poorer areas. I was lucky enough to visit the POW camps in the south of Poland- Auschwitz and Birkenau, because witnessing the actual site of the mass murders made it so much more real. It is often easy to watch tragedies on the news or in the movies and feel sad, but still feel essentially disconnected. It is hard not to feel the reality of the thousands murdered when you are standing in the gas chambers and touching the walls of the prison cells. Ive included below a preview of the movie 'the pianist' for everyone to have a look at, as well as some of the photos i took when i visited the POW camp.


Thursday, July 26, 2007

this is a test

Hi all, this is Mrs. Freud attempting to execute an accurate test blog!